Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Definition, Structure, and Its Role

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is the only multilateral binding treaty that works to stop the spread of nuclear weapons around the world. Negotiations for the NPT took place between 1965 and 1968 under the United Nations’ Eighteen-Nation Committee on Disarmament, based in Geneva. The treaty was opened for signature on July 1, 1968, and entered into force on March 5, 1970. The key objectives of NPT are:

• To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology.
• To promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
• Achieving the goal of complete nuclear disarmament.

Key Features of NPT

• 191 countries have joined the NPT, making it the most widely accepted disarmament treaty in the world.
• Five recognized nuclear weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China.
• IAEA safeguards: The International Atomic Energy Agency checks that countries are following the rules through inspections.
• Review conferences: Every five years, countries meet to discuss how well the treaty is working.
• Extended indefinitely: In 1995, countries agreed that the NPT would continue forever.

Three Main Pillars of NPT

The NPT is built on three important pillars. These are

• Non-Proliferation: Countries without nuclear weapons promise never to get them, and countries with nuclear weapons promise not to give them to others.
• Disarmament: Countries with nuclear weapons promise to work towards getting rid of their nuclear weapons completely.
• Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy: All countries can use nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, like generating electricity and medical treatments.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and serves as the primary monitoring body for the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

• Purpose: IAEA safeguards help stop the spread of nuclear weapons by checking if nuclear material is used only for peaceful purposes.
• Who it applies to: All non-nuclear-weapon states that join the NPT must sign a safeguards agreement with the IAEA.
• Inspection: The IAEA inspects all nuclear material and activities in these countries to make sure nothing is diverted to make weapons.
• Types of agreements: There are different types of safeguards agreements, but most countries use a comprehensive agreement covering all their nuclear activities
• Item-Specific Agreements for Non-NPT States: Countries not in the NPT (like India, Pakistan, Israel) have item-specific safeguards agreements for certain nuclear materials and facilities.
• Legal Basis: The legal authority for these rules comes from the IAEA Statute and the NPT (Article III).

India has never signed the NPT for several important reasons:

• Discrimination: India believes the NPT creates unfair divisions between nuclear "haves" and "have-nots".
• Security concerns: India feels threatened by China's nuclear weapons and needs its nuclear deterrent.
• Universal disarmament: India wants all countries, including existing nuclear powers, to give up their nuclear weapons completely.

India's Nuclear Doctrine

India developed its nuclear policy based on three main principles:

• No First Use (NFU): India promises it will only use nuclear weapons if attacked first with nuclear weapons.
• Credible Minimum Deterrence: India will keep only the minimum number of nuclear weapons needed to deter enemies.
• Civilian Control: Only civilian political leaders can decide to use nuclear weapons through the Nuclear Command Authority.

Also cover this important topic: Revitalizing India’s Nuclear Energy Sector: Challenges, Opportunities & Reforms

Currently, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) struggles with rising geopolitical tensions, stalled disarmament efforts, and growing concerns over nuclear technology misuse.

• Disarmament stalemate: Nuclear weapon states have not made enough progress in reducing their weapons.
• North Korea's withdrawal: North Korea left the NPT in 2003 and has developed nuclear weapons.
• Iran's nuclear program: Iran has been accused of not following NPT rules, and recently considered leaving the treaty.
• Modernization of nuclear arsenals: All nine nuclear-armed countries are upgrading their nuclear weapons. 

According to Article X of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), any country can leave (withdraw) from the treaty if it decides that “extraordinary events” related to the treaty have threatened its “supreme interests.”

• The country must give a three-month (90 days) written notice to all other treaty members and explain its reasons for leaving.
• There is no strict requirement for other countries to agree with the withdrawing country’s reasons; the treaty only asks for notification and explanation. 

• Iran signed the NPT in 1968 and ratified it in 1970 as a non-nuclear weapon state, agreeing not to make or acquire nuclear weapons.
• Recently, after Israeli military strikes on its nuclear facilities and rising tensions, Iran’s parliament has started drafting a bill to withdraw from the NPT, although no final decision has been made yet.

Also read: India-Middle East Economic Corridor: Trade, Energy & Geopolitics | Strategic Partnership

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The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) remains a cornerstone of global security, balancing nuclear non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful energy use. Yet challenges persist: nuclear states modernize arsenals, North Korea and Iran threaten treaty integrity, and disarmament progress stalls. As the 2026 NPT Review Conference approaches, renewed commitment to the treaty's pillars is vital for a safer world.

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